The Role of Psychological Distress in Gender Differences of Perceived Relaxation within Urban Open Spaces
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32315/jlbi.v15i2.665Keywords:
Urban Open Space, Mental Health, Psychological Distress, Gender, Perceived RelaxationAbstract
Rapid urbanization has intensified mental health challenges in cities, highlighting the growing importance of urban open spaces as perceived relaxation environments. Although relaxation qualities have been widely examined, conventional assessments frequently generalize user characteristics, overlooking the influence of baseline mental health. Consequently, environmental literature often assumes uniform restorative outcomes, neglecting how psychological distress varies across genders. This study investigates gender differences in perceived relaxation of urban open spaces, with a particular focus on psychological distress. This research conduct a cross-sectional study with a semi-structured online questionnaire involving 101 adult participants. The data of psychological distress was assessed using the World Health Organization's Self-Reporting Questionnaire (SRQ-20). Relevant environmental elements were identified through word-frequency analysis on semi-open-ended description, and then examined using analysis of variance and correspondence analysis. The results indicate that psychological distress has a more direct association with perceived relaxation than gender. While psychological distress influences how individuals perceive the experience, gender differences shape how those experiences are enacted. This study also reveal that natural greenery and coherent spatial design act as primary relaxation elements, whereas facilities and social interaction serve as secondary elements, utilized differently across gender. These findings highlight the importance of incorporating users' internal conditions into the design process to enhance the relaxation potential of urban open spaces. Design approaches must move beyond the uniform assumptions that often characterize current practice in order to create inclusive and relaxing urban environments that support everyday mental well-being.
Downloads
References
[1] World Health Organization, World mental health today : Latest data. Geneva, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240113817
[2] A. Ventriglio, J. Torales, J. M. Castaldelli-Maia, D. De Berardis, and D. Bhugra, “Urbanization and emerging mental health issues,” CNS Spectr., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 43–50, Feb. 2021, doi: 10.1017/S1092852920001236.
[3] V. Pandia, A. Noviandhari, I. Amelia, G. H. Hidayat, E. Fadlyana, and M. Dhamayanti, “Association of Mental Health Problems and Socio-Demographic Factors Among Adolescents in Indonesia,” Global Pediatric Health, vol. 8, p. 2333794X211042223, Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1177/2333794X211042223.
[4] R. W. Basrowi et al., “Exploring Mental Health Issues and Priorities in Indonesia Through Qualitative Expert Consensus,” CPEMH, vol. 20, no. 1, p. e17450179331951, Nov. 2024, doi: 10.2174/0117450179331951241022175443.
[5] E. S. Jaya and S. Wulandari, “Psychotic Experiences, Depressive Symptoms, Anxiety Symptoms and Common Mental Health Risk Factors of Urban and Non-Urban Dwellers in Indonesia,” PROUST, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 3, Apr. 2018, doi: 10.7454/proust.v1i1.21.
[6] S. Niman, T. Rothhaar, I. O. Siagian, W. Astutik, and R. Rahayu, “The Mental Health of People Living in Urban Areas in West Java, Indonesia,” ujph, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 241–249, Jan. 2025, doi: 10.13189/ujph.2025.130124.
[7] A. Muhawarman, “Skrining Kesehatan Jiwa Gratis Lewat SATUSEHAT Mobile,” Kemenkes.co.Id, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://kemkes.go.id/id/skrining-kesehatan-jiwa-gratis-lewat-satusehat-mobile
[8] S. Baskaran, S. S. Ab. Azis, N. H. Ab Rahman, and N. Aziz, “Effectiveness of Green Space in Improving Mental Health: A Review,” Int J. of BES, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 175–186, Jan. 2025, doi: 10.11113/ijbes.v12.n1.1369.
[9] A. Callaghan et al., “The impact of green spaces on mental health in urban settings: a scoping review,” Journal of Mental Health, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 179–193, Mar. 2021, doi: 10.1080/09638237.2020.1755027.
[10] Y. Joye and S. Dewitte, “Nature’s broken path to restoration. A critical look at Attention Restoration Theory,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol. 59, pp. 1–8, Oct. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.08.006.
[11] S. Kaplan, “The Restorative Environment : Nature and Human Experience,” in The Role of horticulture in human well-being and social development, Portland: Timber Press, 1992, pp. 134–142.
[12] C. W. Thompson and P. Travlou, Open Space: People Space. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2007.
[13] W. Zhu, J. Wang, and B. Qin, “Quantity or quality? Exploring the association between public open space and mental health in urban China,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 213, p. 104128, Sep. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104128.
[14] M. P. White, S. Pahl, K. Ashbullby, S. Herbert, and M. H. Depledge, “Feelings of restoration from recent nature visits,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol. 35, pp. 40–51, Sep. 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.04.002.
[15] S. Å. K. Johnsen, “Exploring the use of nature for emotion regulation: Associations with personality, perceived stress, and restorative outcomes,” Nordic Psychology, vol. 65, no. 4, pp. 306–321, Dec. 2013, doi: 10.1080/19012276.2013.851445.
[16] K. Thwaites, E. Helleur, and I. M. Simkins, “Restorative urban open space: Exploring the spatial configuration of human emotional fulfilment in urban open space,” Landscape Research, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 525–547, Oct. 2005, doi: 10.1080/01426390500273346.
[17] A. Olszewska-Guizzo, A. Sia, A. Fogel, and R. Ho, “Features of urban green spaces associated with positive emotions, mindfulness and relaxation,” Sci Rep, vol. 12, no. 1, p. 20695, Nov. 2022, doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-24637-0.
[18] T. Hartig, K. Korpela, G. W. Evans, and T. Gärling, “A measure of restorative quality in environments,” Scandinavian Housing and Planning Research, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 175–194, Jan. 1997, doi: 10.1080/02815739708730435.
[19] R. Wang, J. Zhao, M. J. Meitner, Y. Hu, and X. Xu, “Characteristics of urban green spaces in relation to aesthetic preference and stress recovery,” Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, vol. 41, pp. 6–13, May 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.ufug.2019.03.005.
[20] J. Ha, H. J. Kim, and K. A. With, “Urban green space alone is not enough: A landscape analysis linking the spatial distribution of urban green space to mental health in the city of Chicago,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 218, p. 104309, Feb. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104309.
[21] A. J. J. Grave, L. Neven, and M. Mohammadi, “The design of neighbourhood open spaces to improve mental health: a critical review of restorative spatial characteristics and their applicability in design practice,” Cities & Health, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 784–799, Jul. 2024, doi: 10.1080/23748834.2024.2359759.
[22] Y. Liu, J. Zhang, C. Liu, and Y. Yang, “A Review of Attention Restoration Theory: Implications for Designing Restorative Environments,” Sustainability, vol. 16, no. 9, p. 3639, Apr. 2024, doi: 10.3390/su16093639.
[23] Y. Wu, Q. Liu, T. Hang, Y. Yang, Y. Wang, and L. Cao, “Integrating restorative perception into urban street planning: A framework using street view images, deep learning, and space syntax,” Cities, vol. 147, p. 104791, Apr. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.cities.2024.104791.
[24] N. I. M. Shobri, “Linking the preference of perceived sensory dimension and mental health restoration with gender different,” presented at the XVII MEXICAN SYMPOSIUM ON MEDICAL PHYSICS, Veracruz, México, 2023, p. 040025. doi: 10.1063/5.0169200.
[25] J. Zhang, Z. Tan, and F. Bu, “Impact of urban green spaces on mental restoration in older adults: a perspective based on subjective perception,” Front. Public Health, vol. 13, p. 1687874, Nov. 2025, doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2025.1687874.
[26] M. L. Ríos-Rodríguez, C. Rosales, M. Lorenzo, G. Muinos, and B. Hernández, “Influence of Perceived Environmental Quality on the Perceived Restorativeness of Public Spaces,” Front. Psychol., vol. 12, p. 644763, Apr. 2021, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.644763.
[27] K. Korpela and T. Hartig, “RESTORATIVE QUALITIES OF FAVORITE PLACES,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 221–233, Sep. 1996, doi: 10.1006/jevp.1996.0018.
[28] A. Bornioli et al., “Sex and the city park: The role of gender and sex in psychological restoration in urban greenspaces,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, vol. 100, p. 102476, Dec. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102476.
[29] Y. Huang and N. C. Napawan, “‘Separate but Equal?’ Understanding Gender Differences in Urban Park Usage and Its Implications for Gender-Inclusive Design,” Landscape Jrnl., vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 1–16, 2021, doi: 10.3368/lj.40.1.1.
[30] S. N. Mashhadi Moghadam and M. Rafieian, “What did urban studies do for women? A systematic review of 40 years of research,” Habitat International, vol. 92, p. 102047, Oct. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.habitatint.2019.102047.
[31] P. Navarrete-Hernandez, A. Vetro, and P. Concha, “Building safer public spaces: Exploring gender difference in the perception of safety in public space through urban design interventions,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 214, p. 104180, Oct. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104180.
[32] Y. Gong, S. Palmer, J. Gallacher, T. Marsden, and D. Fone, “A systematic review of the relationship between objective measurements of the urban environment and psychological distress,” Environment International, vol. 96, pp. 48–57, Nov. 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.08.019.
[33] C. L. Ambrey and R. Zahnow, “Public open space, adverse live events and psychological distress in Melbourne, Australia,” Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 263, p. 105443, Nov. 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2025.105443.
[34] T. T. H. Do et al., “Using the WHO Self-Reporting Questionnaire-20 (SRQ-20) to Detect Symptoms of Common Mental Disorders among Pregnant Women in Vietnam: a Validation Study,” IJWH, vol. Volume 15, pp. 599–609, Apr. 2023, doi: 10.2147/IJWH.S404993.
[35] T. B. Netsereab, M. M. Kifle, R. B. Tesfagiorgis, S. G. Habteab, Y. K. Weldeabzgi, and O. Z. Tesfamariam, “Validation of the WHO self-reporting questionnaire-20 (SRQ-20) item in primary health care settings in Eritrea,” Int J Ment Health Syst, vol. 12, no. 1, p. 61, Dec. 2018, doi: 10.1186/s13033-018-0242-y.
[36] S. Idaiani, R. Mubasyiroh, I. Y. Suryaputri, L. Indrawati, and I. Dharmayanti, “The Validity of the Self-Reporting Questionnaire-20 for Symptoms of Depression: A Sub- Analysis of the National Health Survey in Indonesia,” Open Access Maced J Med Sci, vol. 10, no. E, pp. 1676–1682, Oct. 2022, doi: 10.3889/oamjms.2022.9999.
[37] World Health Organization, “A user’s guide to the self-reporting questionnaire (SRQ),” Geneva. [Online]. Available: https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/61113
[38] R. M. Groves, F. J. Fowler, M. P. Couper, J. M. Lepkowski, E. Singer, and R. Tourangeau, Survey Methodology, 2nd ed. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley, 2009.
[39] J. Gehl, Life Between Buildings, Using Public Space. Washington: Island Press, 2011.
[40] H. Nordh, C. Alalouch, and T. Hartig, “Assessing restorative components of small urban parks using conjoint methodology,” Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 95–103, Jan. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.ufug.2010.12.003.
[41] V. Mehta, “Evaluating Public Space,” Journal of Urban Design, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 53–88, Jan. 2014, doi: 10.1080/13574809.2013.854698.
[42] T. Hartig, F. G. Kaiser, and P. A. Bowler, “Further Development of a Measure of Perceived Environmental Restorativeness,” Uppsala Universitet, Sweden.
[43] G. Lyrakos, M. C. Kitsiou, A. Goudella, and B. Spinaris, “Adapting the SRQ for greek populations: a culturally-sensitive psychiatric screening instrument,” Eur. psychiatr., vol. 26, no. S2, pp. 465–465, Mar. 2011, doi: 10.1016/S0924-9338(11)72172-1.
[44] N. I. M. Shobri, “Linking the preference of perceived sensory dimension and mental health restoration with gender different,” presented at the XVII MEXICAN SYMPOSIUM ON MEDICAL PHYSICS, Veracruz, México, 2023, p. 040025. doi: 10.1063/5.0169200.
[45] J. Zhang, Z. Tan, and F. Bu, “Impact of urban green spaces on mental restoration in older adults: a perspective based on subjective perception,” Front. Public Health, vol. 13, p. 1687874, Nov. 2025, doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2025.1687874.
[46] M.-B. Fernández Núñez et al., “Gender and sex differences in urban greenness’ mental health benefits: A systematic review,” Health & Place, vol. 76, p. 102864, Jul. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2022.102864.
[47] Y. Lin, X. Ma, B. Zhao, C. La, P. Zhang, and Q. Luo, “A moderated mediation model of green space exposure, mindfulness, physical activity level, and perceived stress,” Front. Public Health, vol. 13, p. 1674536, Oct. 2025, doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2025.1674536.
[48] U. K. Stigsdotter and P. Grahn, “Stressed individuals’ preferences for activities and environmental characteristics in green spaces,” Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 295–304, Jan. 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.ufug.2011.07.001.
[49] P. St-Jean, O. G. Clark, and M. Jemtrud, “A review of the effects of architectural stimuli on human psychology and physiology,” Building and Environment, vol. 219, p. 109182, Jul. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109182.
[50] A. Baobeid, M. Koç, and S. G. Al-Ghamdi, “Walkability and Its Relationships With Health, Sustainability, and Livability: Elements of Physical Environment and Evaluation Frameworks,” Front. Built Environ., vol. 7, p. 721218, Sep. 2021, doi: 10.3389/fbuil.2021.721218.
[51] A. S. Dosen and M. J. Ostwald, “Prospect and Refuge Theory: Contructing a Critical Definition for Architecture and Design,” The International Journal of Design in Society, 2013, doi: https://doi.org/10.18848/2325-1328/CGP/v06i01/38559.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Dessy Syarlianti, Emmelia Tricia Herliana, Cynthia Puspitasari, Dian Duhita Permata
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
